On the right side of the schematic we see some example applications of surface analysis techniques. Thickness and composition of the upper TCO can be characterized by RBS, XRR or XPS, crystallinity and phases by XRD, and contamination between the TCO and first α-Si:H layer by XPS or AES. Elemental profiles of atmospherics (O, C, N, H), dopants (B, P) and F as well as metal contamination can be profiled by SIMS. Crystallinity fraction in the absorber layers can be determined by Raman or XRD. Layer thicknesses, interface structure and grain structure can be determined by TEM, STEM and SEM for the absorber layers, the lower TCO and metal contact. Failure analysis can be supported by FTIR, GCMS, TOF-SIMS, TEM, STEM/EDS, SEM, EDS, XPS, AES and Raman.